Four-year-olds born during England’s first COVID-19 lockdown met or exceeded expectations in many language and reasoning skills, although caregivers reported greater difficulties with planning, working memory and self-control.
Did being born during the COVID-19 lockdown leave children with widespread developmental delays?
Preliminary findings from England suggest the answer may be more reassuring than expected.
Four-year-old children born during the first national lockdown performed as well as, or better than, pre-pandemic expectations in several language and reasoning tests. However, caregivers reported greater difficulties in executive-function skills such as working memory, planning, organisation and self-control.
The study examined children born between March 23 and June 23, 2020, when England introduced its first strict COVID-19 lockdown.
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Lockdown-Born Children Performed Well in Language Tests
Researchers assessed 205 children at around four years of age. The children completed tests measuring sentence structure, expressive vocabulary, receptive vocabulary and non-verbal reasoning.
Scores in these areas generally exceeded pre-pandemic age-based norms. Sentence structure refers to a child’s ability to understand and use grammatical forms.
Expressive vocabulary measures the words a child can produce, while receptive vocabulary measures the words they can understand.
The findings challenge concerns that reduced social contact during infancy necessarily led to broad language delays across this generation.
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Non-Verbal Reasoning Also Exceeded Expectations
Children also performed strongly in non-verbal reasoning. This skill involves solving problems, identifying patterns and understanding relationships without relying heavily on spoken language.
Non-verbal reasoning is often used as an indicator of broader cognitive ability.
The children’s strong performance suggested that many had developed age-appropriate or above-expected thinking and problem-solving abilities despite experiencing unusually restricted early environments.
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Executive Function Emerged as the Main Concern
Although language and reasoning findings were encouraging, executive function stood out as a relative weakness.
Caregivers reported more executive-function difficulties than would normally be expected for children of the same age.
The most commonly affected areas included:
- Working memory
- Planning and organization
- Behavioural regulation
- Self-control
- Ability to manage tasks and instructions
Executive function refers to the mental skills people use to control behaviour, remember information, shift attention and complete goal-directed activities.
These abilities become increasingly important when children begin formal schooling.
Relative Weaknesses Emerged Despite Age-Appropriate Development
The researchers compared each child’s developmental skills with their non-verbal reasoning ability. Sentence structure and receptive vocabulary generally kept pace with the children’s higher reasoning scores.
However, expressive language, motor skills and executive function appeared weaker when compared with their broader cognitive potential.
This does not mean that all children had developmental delays. Expressive language and motor skills still generally met age-based expectations. Executive function was the most consistent area where children appeared to face additional challenges.
Word Structure Was Very Low in a Small Group
Most language scores were reassuring, but researchers identified one area requiring attention. About 5.4% of children received very low scores for word structure, compared with the 2% expected under pre-pandemic norms.
Word structure includes grammatical skills such as using plurals, verb endings and other forms that help children construct meaningful sentences.
The finding suggests that while the overall group performed well, a small proportion of children may still need targeted language support.
Early Lockdown Limited Social and Learning Experiences
The children spent much of their first 18 months under pandemic-related restrictions. During this period, childcare facilities, recreational spaces and family health services were disrupted.
Social contact was limited, face coverings became common and many children had fewer opportunities to interact with people outside their households. Early childhood is an important period for developing communication, emotional regulation, movement and problem-solving skills.
These abilities are influenced by conversation, play, physical exploration and social interaction. Researchers originally expected that these restrictions might have caused broad developmental difficulties.
Family Time May Have Supported Some Language Skills
The study did not determine why many children performed strongly in language and reasoning. However, one possible explanation is that some children spent more time interacting with parents or primary caregivers during lockdown.
Increased one-to-one conversation, shared reading and family interaction may have supported language development in some households.
At the same time, lockdown experiences differed widely. Some families had more time together, while others faced illness, financial stress, crowded housing, disrupted childcare or demanding work responsibilities.
The findings therefore should not be interpreted as showing that lockdown improved development for every child.
Motor Skills Generally Met Age Expectations
Caregivers also provided information about children’s motor development.Overall motor skills were broadly in line with age-based expectations.
Motor performance appeared relatively weaker than the children’s strong non-verbal reasoning ability. Lockdown restrictions may have reduced access to playgrounds, childcare environments and other opportunities for physical exploration. Despite this, the children did not show clear evidence of widespread motor delay.
Classroom Support May Be More Useful Than Broad Screening
Schools may help strengthen executive function and behavioural regulation through consistent routines, step-by-step instructions, visual schedules, working-memory activities, turn-taking games and targeted expressive-language support.
These practical classroom strategies could help children manage tasks, control impulses and follow instructions without requiring widespread specialist referral.
Executive Function Is Important for School Readiness
Executive-function skills help children follow instructions, organise tasks, control impulses and adapt when rules change.
A child may have strong vocabulary and reasoning ability but still struggle to begin tasks, remember multiple instructions or regulate frustration. These challenges can affect classroom participation, learning and relationships.
Providing support early may help children use their language and reasoning strengths more effectively as academic demands increase.
Findings Are Preliminary and Need Careful Interpretation
The researchers cautioned that the findings are preliminary. The study included volunteer families and excluded children born very prematurely or with known developmental delays or genetic conditions.(1✔ ✔Trusted Source
Developmental outcomes in 4-year-old children born in the first COVID-19 lockdown in England: preliminary findings from the Born In COVID Year – Core Lockdown Effects (BICYCLE) study
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Families also needed to speak English and have a consistent primary caregiver. These eligibility requirements mean the results may not represent every child born during lockdown. Most assessments were conducted remotely between May 2024 and June 2025.
Executive function and motor skills were measured through caregiver questionnaires rather than direct testing, which may influence the results.
Study Cannot Separate Lockdown Effects From Other Factors
The preliminary report examined only children born during the initial lockdown. It did not yet directly compare them with children born before or after the pandemic.
As a result, the findings cannot prove that lockdown conditions caused either the children’s strengths or their executive-function difficulties.(1✔ ✔Trusted Source
Developmental outcomes in 4-year-old children born in the first COVID-19 lockdown in England: preliminary findings from the Born In COVID Year – Core Lockdown Effects (BICYCLE) study
Family resources, parental education, home learning, childcare access and other factors may also have affected development. The wider BICYCLE study includes children born before, during and after lockdown and may provide stronger comparisons in the future.
Lockdown-Born Children Show Strengths but May Need Targeted Support
The findings offer a balanced and reassuring picture. Four-year-olds born during England’s first lockdown showed strong language comprehension, sentence skills and non-verbal reasoning, with no evidence of widespread developmental delay.
Some children may still benefit from support with working memory, planning, organisation, self-control and expressive language. Schools and families can build on their strengths while providing practical help with emotional regulation, task management and independent learning.
References:
- Developmental outcomes in 4-year-old children born in the first COVID-19 lockdown in England: preliminary findings from the Born In COVID Year – Core Lockdown Effects (BICYCLE) study- (https://adc.bmj.com/content/early/2026/07/02/archdischild-2025-329529 )
Source-Medindia